ITALICS

Italics are used to indicate emphasis, to mark foreign terms and expressions not commonly used, and to highlight titles of publications and names of certain vehicles such as ships, spacecraft, and the like. Use the underscore for any item that would be italicized in print.

1) EMPHASIS

Occasionally, italics are used to stress certain words or phrases. This usage is more common in dialogue than in formal writing and should be kept to a minimum.

Example:

- “I didn’t blue paint; I wanted lavender paint!”

- “Mr. Lloyd, you told the prosecutor that you didn’t meet Mrs. Young until last month, is that right?”

- On the basis of the field inspector’s report, I recommend that we shut down off shore drilling platform #45.

2) FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES

Foreign words and phrases that are not part of common usage are italicized.

Example:

- The motto of the Coast Guard is simper paratus—always prepared.

- As they say, Ende gut, alles gut: all’s well that ends well.

NOTE: However, many foreign words have been in common use long enough that they are no longer italicized.

Example:

- His clothes are very avant-garde.

- At one time the motto caveat emptor—let the buyer beware—was the rule in business.

- Her hat is chic, her shoes passé.

- The military junta declared a 7:00 P.M. curfew.

3) TITLES

The titles of plays, books, magazines, newspapers, movies, and other types of periodicals and publications are italicized when they appear in print. If the first word of a title is a, an, or the, it is italicized only if it is part of the actual name.

Example:

- The Wall Street Journal (newspaper)

- The Los Angeles Times (newspaper)

- Chorus Line (play)

- The Insider (corporate publication)

- Editorial Eye (newsletter)

- Esquire (magazine)

- The Color Purple (movie)

- Redbook (magazine)

- The Yearling (book)

4) VEHICLES

Use italics for the names of ships, spacecraft, airplanes, and other well-known vehicles.

Example:

- The battleship Excalibur.

- The spaceship Enterprise.

- The titanic.

- The president’s jet Air Force One.

ELLIPSES ( … )

Ellipses point (…) indicate that material has been omitted from a quotation or quoted material.

Example:

Original: This book describes the author’s visit to Nepal and renders scenes of the rugged, mountainous countryside that will remain in the reader’s mind forever.

Condensed: This book…renders scenes…that will remain in the reader’s mind forever.

NOTE: When words are omitted at the end of a sentence, use an end mark plus the ellipses.

Example: This book…renders scenes of the rugged, mountainous countryside…

BRACKETS [ ]

Use brackets to enclose additions to quoted material. These additions, made by editors or writers, usually clarify or comment on the material.

Example:

- “Mark Twain said it [the river] taught him all he ever knew about life.”

- Virginia Woolf lived with him [Lytton Strachey] while recovering from her illness.”

- “There were few Esquimouxs [sic] living in the region we explored.”

NOTE: Brackets are also used to enclose material that falls within material already enclosed by parentheses.

Example: The fall sales records are encouraging (see page 33, Monthly Sales [Table 2.1] for a detailed breakdown by product line).

PARENTHESES ( )

Parentheses ( ) enclose material that is an interruption of the text but adds information.

Example:

- The park (in Washington) is always crowded in summer.

- I know the answer (I think) to the question.

NOTE: If the material enclosed falls at the end of a sentence, the end mark is placed outside the closing parenthesis. If the material is a complete sentence within itself, the end mark is placed inside the parenthesis.

Example:

- We provide a complete list of stores (see the Appendix).

- We provide a complete list of stores. (See the Appendix.)

DASHES ( — )

A dash indicates a break in thought or the addition of information within a sentence or at its end. A dash is typed using two hyphens. There is no space before or after the punctuation mark.

Example:

- The woman came running around the corner—I couldn’t see her face—and disappeared down the alley.

- This building—and every building on the street—is overdue for repairs.

- Paul White—you know the man I mean—told me the ballgame would be canceled tomorrow.

NOTE: A dash can be used to mean namely, that is, or in other words to introduce additional information or an explanation.

Example:

- I thought about taking another route—the one through West Virginia.

- There’s only one way to ride that horse—take out a lot of accident insurance.

HYPHENS ( - )

Hyphens are used to join two or more words that are used as a single unit, to link two last names, to join continuous numbers, to connect some prefixes and suffixes with their nouns, to divide words at the end of a line, and to avoid confusing or awkward word constructions.

1) COMPOUND NUMBERS AND FRACTIONS

Hyphens are used with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-one and with fractions used as adjectives. However, when fractions serve as nouns, no hyphen is used.

Example:

- Twenty-one red roses.

- Sixty-five and over.

- A two-thirds majority.

- A glass three-fifths full.

- But: two tenths of a percent (Two tenths is used as a noun.)

2) COMPOUND NUMBERS

Hyphens are used to link dates of birth and death, pages of material, scores of games, and other instances in which the relationship between the numbers needs to be shown.

Example:

- T. E. Lawrence, “Lawrence of Arabia,” (1888-1935)

- Read pages 15-32 in your statistics book.

- The Bears beat the Rams 21-0.

- All children ages 8-12 are eligible for camp.

3) PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

Prefixes ex-, self-, all-, and the suffixes –elect, always take a hyphen whether they are used as modifiers or as nouns. Hyphens also are used with all prefixes before proper nouns and adjectives.

Example:

- Self-esteem.

- Ex-director.

- Secretary-elect.

- All-encompassing.

- All-Canadian team.

- Pro-French.

4) COMPOUND ADJECTIVES

When compound adjectives are used before the noun, they are hyphenated. When they follow the noun, no hyphen is used. If one of the modifiers is an adverb ending in –ly, do not use a hyphen in the compound adjective.

Example:

- A decision-making process/ a process for decision making.

- A well-run program/ a program that is well run.

- A city-owned business/ a business that is city owned.

- Publicly owned parks/ parks that are publicly owned.

5) WORD DIVISION

Hyphens are used to divide words at the end of a line as a reminder that the rest of the word is to follow. Words cannot be divided arbitrarily but only between syllables.

Example:

- We were almost in Niles Town-

ship when our car broke down.

- Sam didn’t really want to con-

tinue the trip, but I did.

6) HYPHENATED NAMES

Hyphens are used to join two last names.

Example:

- Karen Norridge-Adams.

- The Henderson-Smythes.

- Mr. Michael Harrington-Kelly.

- Mr. and Mrs. Barry-Schroeder.

7) TO AVOID CONFUSION

Use hyphens to prevent confusion or awkwardness in sentences.

Example:

- Re-creation (prevents confusion with recreation)

- Re-emphasize (avoid awkwardness of reemphasize)

- Sub-subentry (avoids confusion of subsubentry)

APOSTROPHE ( ‘ )

The apostrophe is used to show possession and to form the plural of many nouns and symbols. (Possessive nou s and pronouns are also covered in Parts of Speech under Nouns and Pronouns.)

1) POSSESSIVE OF SINGULAR NOUNS

The possessive of a singular noun is formed by adding ( ‘s ). Names that end in a z sound often take only the apostrophe to avoid the awkwardness of too many s sounds.

Example:

- The mechanic’s wrench.

- The tree’s leaves.

- Moses’s tablets.

- Mrs. Gonzales’ maid.

- Gloria’s briefcase.

- Mr. Jones’ house.

- Gus’s workbench.

- Ned Stanis’s boots.

2) POSSESSIVE OF PLURAL NOUNS

The plural possessive of nouns ending in (s) is formed by adding only the apostrophe. All other plural nouns take ( ‘s ).

Example:

- The Harlands’ trip.

- Children’s shoes.

- The teams’ scores.

- The trees’ leaves.

- Men’s sports wear.

- Women’s networks.

3) INDEFINITE AND PERSONAL PRONOUNS

Indefinite pronouns (everyone, no one, anybody, everybody, someone, somebody, one) require an apostrophe to form the possessive. However, personal possessive pronouns (his, her, theirs, your/yours, my/mine, our/ours) do not use an apostrophe.

Example:

- Is this someone’s book?

- I’ll take anyone’s ideas.

- Yes, the book is hers.

- Your ideas are great.

4) INDIVIDUAL AND JOINT POSSESSION

When hyphenated words or names of organizations, companies, or individuals are used to show joint possession, only the last word takes ( ‘s ) or an apostrophe.

In cases of individual possession, both nouns or pronouns take ( ‘s ) or the apostrophe only.

Joint possession:

- Lin and Chan’s bicycles. (The bicycle is owned by both Lin and Chan.)

- The vice-presidents’ office. (The office is used by more than one vice president.)

- IBM and Xerox’s new venture. (The two companies are working together on one venture.)

Individual possession:

- Lin’s and Chan’s bicycles. (Notice the plural noun after the names—a clue that each person owns a bicycle.)

- Her father-in-law’s and brother’s golf scores.

- Texaco’s and Esso’s annual reports.

5) UNITS OF MEASURE AS POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES

Units of measure such as day, week, yard, cent, and hour take an ( ‘s ) or an apostrophe when used as possessive adjectives.

Example:

- A moment’s peace.

- A month’s pay.

- A dollar’s worth.

- Ten minutes’ work.

- Three weeks’ pay.

- Two cents’ worth.

6) PLURAL FORMS OF SYMBOLS

The apostrophe or ( ‘s ) is used to form the plural of letters, numbers, signs, symbols, and words referred to as words.

Example:

- All the R’s in this article were printed backwards.

- Mark these items with X’s and those with Z’s.

- Your 3’s look like 8’s.

- How many and’s can you put in one sentence?

- My typewriter smudged all the &’s in my letter.

QUOTATION MARKS (“ ”)

Quotation marks enclose a direct quotation, that is, the repetition of someone’s exact words.

Example:

- “Keep your head down and charge!” the coach said.

- Her exact words were “Bake the bread at 350 degrees.”

NOTE: Indirect questions do not take quotation marks.

Example:

- The coach said to keep your head down and charge.

- She told us to bake the bread at 350 degrees.

1) PUNCTATION WITH QUOTATION MARKS

a) Commas and periods are always placed inside the closing quote marks even if the quoted material is contained within the sentence.

Example:

- She thinks we’re “off the wall,” but I think our idea will work.

- We’ve heard him say a thousand times, “Waste not, want not.”

- “Tell me something I’ll remember forever,” she said.

- You’ve read the poem “Ash Wednesday,” haven’t you?

b) Semicolons and colons are always placed outside the quotation marks.

Example:

- Look up the title under “Animated Cartoons”; copy the cartoon features listed there.

- The following animals are considered “marsupials”: kangaroo, wombat, and koala.

c) Question marks and exclamation points are placed inside the final quotation mark if they are part of the quoted material. Otherwise they are placed outside the quotation marks. Only one end mark is used at the end of a sentence containing quoted material.

Example:

- Have you read the report “Single-Parent Families”? (The entire sentence is the question; the end mark comes after the final quotation mark.)

- He sent Josh the article “Why Can’t Ivan Compute?” (The title is a question and the end mark comes before the final quotation marks.)

- “Dinner is hot and ready to eat!” he called.

- I can’t believe they want us to increase sales “by twenty percent”!

2) BRIEF AND LONG QUOTATIONS

a) Quotation material that is only two or three lines long is enclosed in quotation marks and included as part of the regular text.

Example: The movie critic was blunt about her reactions to the film. She stated that it “has the intelligence of a jellyfish and as much reality as Max Klinger’s insanity pleas.”

b) Linger quotations have no quote marks and are set off from the rest of the text by being indented and single spaced.

Example: The movie critic was blunt about her reactions to the film. This movie should suffer an early and merciful death. It has the intelligence of a jellyfish and as much reality as Max Klinger’s insanity pleas. I don’t know what the director intended for this film; but unless it was to bore us to death, he has certainly failed.

3) SINGLE QUOTATION MARKS

Single quotation marks are used to set off a quote within a quote.

Example:

- Carla said, “Every time I hear ‘Amazing Grace’ I want to cry.”

- “When I asked him what he wanted, he replied, ‘Safe passage to Cairo.’”

4) TITLE

Quotation marks are used to enclose the titles of articles, chapters of books, poems, reports, many government publications, short stories, individual songs, workshop or conference titles, and titles of proceedings.

Example:

- “The Red Badge of Courage” is required reading in most college literature programs.

- “Born in the USA” made Bruce Springsteen as well known as Tina Turner.

- Read the chapter “How Diet Affects Immune Functions” before you change your eating habits too radically.

- The report “Equality in the Workplace: A Ten-year Study” shows how much work still needs to be done.

- Louise GlĂĽck’s poem “The Triumph of Achilles” appears in her latest collection.

- The IEEE international conference focused on the theme “Ultrasonic Research: Practical Applications.”

- Throughout the weekend, we will offer two workshops titled “Living with Stress” and “Getting Control of Your Finance.”

5) TERMS AND EXPRESSIONS

Use quotation marks to enclose terms and expressions that are considered odd or unusual (slang terms in a formal report) or that are likely to be unknown to the reader (jargon, technical terms).

Example:

- The President told reporters he regarded his opponents as “flaky.”

- Not many people know the functions of “T cells” or “B cells” in the immune system.

- Scott said he was as full as “a bug-eyed tick.”

- The term “downloaded” should be defined in your book.

COLON ( : )

Colons represent a more complete break than semicolons but not as complete a stop as a period. Like the period, a colon is followed by two full spaces in typed or printed communication.

1) BEFORE A SERIES OR LIST

Colons are used to introduce a series or list only after a complete sentence. When the series immediately follows a verb or preposition, do not use a colon.

Example:

Incorrect: Our five travel choices are: the Bahamas, Hawaii, Mexico City, Acapulco, and Peoria.

Correct: We have five travel choices: the Bahamas, Hawaii, Mexico City, Acapulco, and Peoria.

Incorrect: They were interested in: one brass bed, two lace pillows, one afghan comforter, and a chamber pot.

Correct: They were interested in the following items: one brass bed, two lace pillows, one afghan comforter, and a chamber pot.

2) BETWEEN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE

Use a colon to introduce a question or related statement following an independent clause. The second independent clause may or may not begin with a capital letter.

Example:

- She had only one thought: What was she going to do now?

- I know the answer: reverse the two equations.

3) TIME

Colons are used to express time in figures. Do not use the words o’clock after the figures. However, expressions such as noon, in the afternoon, A.M., P.M., and midnight can be used.

Example:

- 10: 30 a.m.

- 5: 35 p.m.

- 12: 00 midnight

- 8: 30 in the morning

4) FORMAL AND BUSINESS COMMUNICATIONS

Colons follow the salutation in a formal or business letter, report, memo, or other type of business communication.

Example:

- Dear Mr. David:

- Dear Buyer:

- Dear President West:

- To the Research Staff:

- To All Managers:

- Attention Union Members:

SEMICOLON ( ; )

A semicolon represents a stronger break than a comma but not as complete a stop as a period or colon. Semicolons are used to separate independent clauses in s variety of special circumstances. They also serve to group items in a series when the items contain internal punctuation.

1) INDEPENDENT CLAUSES

Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses that are similar in thought but are not joined by a coordinating conjunction and, but, or, nor, for, or, yet.

Example:

- The house stood empty for years; no one would buy it.

- The river raged through the gorge; her small tent was swept away in its path.

2) JOINED BY LINKING ADVERB

When two independent clauses are joined by a linking adverb such as accordingly, however, therefore, or thus, use a semicolon at the end of the first clause. The linking adverb is usually followed by a comma or set off by commas if it falls within the second clause.

Example:

- The turtle survived its two-story fall; however, we can get back to business on Monday.

- Margaret told me not to stay in a motel; she suggested, instead, that I stay at her house.

3) CLAUSES WITH INTERNAL PUNCTUATION

A semicolon is used to separate two independent clauses if one or both of the clauses contain internal punctuation. The clauses may or may not be joined by conjunctions or linking adverbs.

Example:

- I own a quarter horse, a saddle horse, and a burro; they stay on the lower range in winter.

- Walter, the one with the allergies, read his story in class; and everyone thought it was excellent.

- The dark, dusty street looked deserted; but I could hear someone walking slowly behind me.

4) SERIES

Use semicolons to separate items in a series if the items contain internal punctuation.

Example:

- The speakers included Jeff Hines, vice president; Alberta Corazon, director of finances; Edward Singh, human resources; and Nancy Meripol, assistant to the president.

- We ordered five cartons of micro-perf paper; six lined, medium-sized stationery pads; and nine boxes of assorted pens, pencils, and markers.

COMMA ( , )

The comma is the most commonly used and abused punctuation mark. People often insert commas between subject and verb or when they reach the end of a thought, without regard for the rules of comma usage.

Commas are used to separate words or groups of words in a list or parallel construction; to set off introductory elements, interruptions, and words moved from their usual position; and to coordinate such grammatical structures as compound predicates, coordinate adjectives, and descriptive appositives and modifiers. On the hand, some comma uses have little to do with the meaning of a sentence and are inserted to prevent misreading or to create emphasis. In a few cases, they simply represent traditional ways of punctuating various grammatical elements.

This section discusses some of the more common uses and abuses of this often troublesome punctuation mark.

1) SERIES COMMA

Commas separate items in a series. The items can be single words, phrases, or clauses. Although current practice allows the final comma to be dropped before the final conjunction (or, but, nor, and…), including the comma can avoid possible confusion for the reader.

Example:

- We brought sandwiches, wine, cold soup, and chocolate cake on the picnic.

- The conductor set up his stand, took out the score, and lifted his baton. (verb phrases)

- She is vice president of operations, sales and resources and personnel. (Are the final categories sales and resources, and personnel or are they sales, and resources and personnel? A final comma would make the categories clear.)

2) INDEPENDENT CLAUSE

When two independent clauses are joined by and, but, or, nor, or for, use a comma before the conjunction. However, no comma is needed if the clauses are very short.

Example:

- Her performance was brilliant, and the judges awarded her four perfect tens.

- Yolanda knew we’d be late, but she left anyway.

- He can play the guitar, or he can do his magic show.

- Stir the batter and add the eggs slowly.

- They came early and they left late.

NOTE: A comma is not used when and, but, for, or, or nor joins two verb s that share the same subject.

Example:

- Carlton Fisk pitches with the best of them and bats better than most outfielders.

- Shelly hasn’t driven in the city nor ridden on the subway.

3) INTRODUCTORY CLAUSES, PHRASES, EXPRESSIONS

Use a comma after introductory phrases or clauses unless they are very short. When expressions such as no, yes, in addition, well, and thus begin a sentence, they are followed by a comma.

Example:

- When Ansel Adams took a photograph, he knew exactly what would appear in the picture.

- Speaking of food, isn’t anybody hungry?

- In summer we always move to the country. (Short phrase “in summer” does not require a comma.)

- Well, losing one game doesn’t ruin an entire season.

- Thus, I feel your qualifications make you perfectly suited for this job.

4) NONRESTRICTIVE CLAUSES AND NOESSENTIAL MATERIAL

Comma set off nonrestrictive clauses and expressions that interrupt the sentence or that add incidental information or description.

Example:

- The rodeo, held in August, always drew a large tourist crowd. (Held in August is a nonrestrictive clause.)

- We wanted to finish, of course, before night fell.

- The new officer, I’ sure you remember him, stopped by the house yesterday and left your orders.

5) DIRECT ADDRESS

Words used in direct address are set off by commas regardless of their position in the sentence.

Example:

- Greg, can you lift this chair?

- They heard about the trouble, Jean, and wanted to help.

- Please sign this receipt, Ms. Liang.

6) COMMA AND CLARITY

At times commas are used to avoid confusing the reader when a sentence can be read in more than one way.

Example:

- In autumn nights grow steadily longer. (On first reading, autumn and nights appear to go together. It’s evident from the rest of the sentence, however, that they are separate. A comma after autumn would make the meaning clear.)

- In autumn, nights grow steadily longer.

7) TRADIGTIONAL COMMMA USES

Commas are used in certain conventional situations including dates, addresses, the salutations and closings of informal letters, and certain forms of proper names or names followed by a title.

Example:

- We were married June 22, 2009, in Los Angeles. (When only the day and month are used, no commas are necessary: We were married on June 22 in Los Angeles.)

- Send $5.00 and a self-addressed, stamped envelope to Harvard House, Suite 2920, 467 West Rhine Street, Portland, Oregon.

- Dear Harriet, Sincerely yours, Truly yours, Samuel Stanislaw, Jr. (But Samuel Stanislaw II)

- Judith Gallagher, Ph.D. Linda Marks, director.

8) COMMA FAULTS

Many people use commas incorrectly. The following guidelines point out common errors in style.

a) Never use commas to separate two phrases or subordinate clauses joined by a conjunction.

Example:

Incorrect: Dealing with the lead singer in the band, has been an ordeal. (The noun phrase Dealing with the lead singer in the band is the subject and should not be separated from the verb has been.)

Correct: Dealing with the lead singer in the band has been an ordeal.

b) Never use commas to separate two phrases or subordinate clauses joined by a conjunction.

Example:

Incorrect: The waiter suggested that we order a white wine, and that we try the Cajun appetizers.

Correct: The waiter suggested that we order a white wine and that we try the Cajun appetizers.

Incorrect: Howard painted the steps, but not the porch.

Correct: Howard painted the steps but not the porch.

Incorrect: After the treaty was signed, both sides pulled back their troops, and reduced their armored divisions.

Correct: After the treaty was signed, both sides pulled back their troops and reduced their armored divisions.

c) In a series, never use a comma to separate a modifier from the word it modifies.

Incorrect: They drove through a damp, cold, eerie, fog.

Correct: They drove through a damp, cold, eerie fog.

Incorrect: That is a ridiculous, immature, wicked, suggestion.

Correct: That is a ridiculous, immature, wicked suggestion.

EXCLAMATION POINT ( ! )

Exclamation points add emphasis to sentences, phrases, or single words. They are like a red flag waved at the reader and as such should be used sparingly. Exclamation points are a familiar sight in advertising and promotional material.

Example:

- “Wait! Don’t touch that wire!

- “I can’t believe she said that!

- Don’t delay! Order your album now!

QUESTION MARK ( ? )

A question mark is used at the end of a sentence that asks a direct question. It is not used at the end of a statement that contains an indirect question. In informal writing, question marks also can be used with single words.

Example:

Direct question: Are you going to the fiesta tonight?

Indirect question: I asked them if they were going to the fiesta tonight.

Single words:

- What? I couldn’t hear you over the radio.

- So? It’s no trouble to make room for another quest.

1) POLITE REQUESTS

Many business letters contain requests for information, compliance, reply, or permission. These requests can be punctuated using wither a period or a question mark.

Example:

Period: Would you please send me a brochure describing your company’s products.

Question mark: Would you please send me a brochure describing your company’s products?

2) SERIES OF QUESTION

Question marks are used after each question in a sentence containing a series of questions.

Example: How much are you willing to gamble on your future? your family’s health? your career?

3) QUOTATION MARKS

Question marks are placed inside quotation marks when the quoted material is a question. Otherwise, they are placed outside quotation marks.

Example:

- “Are the stuntmen in place?” the director asked.

- I just finished the short story “Where Are We Going?

- Have you read “Ballad of the Sad CafĂ©"? (The quoted material is not a question. The entire sentence is the question.)

- Did he say “no vacation” or “no early vacation”?

PERIOD ( . )

The period is used at the end of a complete sentence, which can be a statement, command, or request. It is a visual marker to the reader that one complete thought has ended and that another may follow. In informal writing, periods can be used with single words.

Example:

Statement: Your bicycle is on my foot.

Request: Please move your bicycle off my foot.

Command: Get your bicycle off my foot.

Single words: Thanks. That feels much better.

Periods are also used in many abbreviations.

Example:

Saint: St.

Cash on delivery: C. O. D.

Avenue: Ave.

Organization: Y. U. O.

EXCEPTIONS OF CONDITIONAL

So far you have only learned the basic rules for Conditional Sentences. It depends on the context, however, which tense to use. So sometimes it's possible for example that in an “If Clause Type 1” another tense than Simple Present is used, e.g. Present Progressive or Present Perfect.

Conditional Sentences Type 1 (likely)

Condition refers to:

If Clause

Main Clause

future action

Simple Present

If the book is interesting, …

Future I

…I will buy it.

action going on now

Present Progressive

If he is snoring, …

Future I

…I will wake him up.

finished action

Present Perfect

If he has moved into his new flat, …

Future I

…we will visit him.

improbable action

should + Infinitive

If she should win this race, …

Future I

…I will congratulate her.

present facts

Simple Present

If he gets what he wants, …

Simple Present

…he is very nice.

Conditional Sentences Type 2 (unlikely)

Condition refers to:

If Clause

Main Clause

present / future event

Simple Past

If I had a lot of money, …

Conditional 1

…I would travel around the world.

result in the past

Simple Past

If I knew him, …

Conditional 2

…I would have said hello.

Conditional Sentences Type 2 (impossible)

Condition refers to:

If Clause

Main Clause

present

Past Perfect

If I had known it, …

Conditional 1

…I would not be here now.

past

Past Perfect

If he had learned for the test, …

Conditional 2

…he would not have failed it.